Katie Callaghan

Honors 213 April 27, 2001

Artistic Axioms:

An axiomatic approach to the creation of realistic art

Art is best measured by the reaction it receives from the viewer. Without anyone analyzing and enjoying it, art as a discipline would only exist for the active enjoyment of the artist. Eventually, the professional artist would be extinct if no one took interest in, and purchased his work. It is the critical and emotional response that keeps art alive. This response, although subjective, is still similar with similar works of art. Although perception of what constitutes "good art" is varied, there exist a few standard techniques that, when employed, give the viewer a sense of realism, allowing them to relate more closely to the work itself. The rules of creating realistic art mimic the ideas of mathematical axioms. There are undefined terms; definitions, axioms, and theorems based on those axioms, that allow the viewer to immediately grasp this sense of realism. Much like geometry, art follows its own axiomatic system for the specific goal of being deemed "realistic" by art critics.

In order to discuss the method used to make art seem realistic, we first define exactly what we mean by realistic. This is a tricky term, especially in art, since everyone brings different experiences and core values with them when identifying with a subject. To the best of our abilities however, we can make a few generalizations that hold up fairly well. We will mainly be dealing with the Renaissance idea of realism. Perceiving something as "real" implies that one is seeing the world as it truly is. Realistic art should be a mirror image of the physical world. In sculpture, the subject should appear alive, as though it has simply paused for a moment to take in its surroundings. For painting, the same is true, although obviously not as easy since the subject is in two-dimensional space. Here a realistic painting is one that appears to be a window. One of the leading Renaissance artists, Leon Battista Alberti wrote, "On the surface on which I am going to paint, I draw a rectangle of whatever size I want, which I regard as an open window through which the subject to be painted is seen" (Wohl, 85). A viewer might believe himself to be looking out onto another world in which he needs only to open a door to participate.

In order to achieve this, an artist should address the ideas of both physicality and emotion through a series of fundamentally recognized steps. In his writing on art criticism, James Ackerman mentions that "interpretation in its simplest sense focuses critical attention on the import and function of the object, while the articulation of response focuses on the experience of the subject" (Ackerman, 37). To have that feeling of realism, an artist must give both physical and emotional depth to his subject. There must be something to hook the viewer into connecting emotionally with the work. Although most of the artistic axioms focus on technical issues (perspective, shading, color, form) there is a final, more subjective axiom, that allows for a certain degree of emotion in the artist’s subject.

Before getting too far into the axioms we start out, as in geometry, with a list of recognized undefined terms. Although these terms may be definable in Webster’s dictionary, we are coming from a completely artistic standpoint in which these terms are assumed to be universally accepted. The undefined art terms are:

1) point

2) line

3) space

4) light

5) color

6) form/shape

7) emotion

The first two come directly from the undefined terms list in neutral geometry. As in neutral geometry, a point is a dot on the page whereas a line is the connection between two points. Space is also associated with the same meaning traditionally given to it in other disciplines (area, dimension etc). Light and color, although similar, are distinct since light can exist in the absence of color. Form and shape are also important in order to make recognizable figures. These first six undefined terms are generally understood to be the basic elements of art (Ackerman, 42). I include the seventh undefined term since, as stated earlier, emotion is a subjective reaction to art but one that is necessary to spark a meaningful connection between artist and observer.

Now that we have this list, we can begin discussing the basic elements that make up the artistic axiomatic system with examples of how each has been successfully employed, particularly in the Renaissance and Baroque periods.

Perspective Axiom # 1: For every subject, there exists a single point at which all lines must converge in order to create a realistic sense of depth in the mind of the observer.

Corollary to Perspective Axiom # 1: There exists one specific point at which the observer must stand to see the work correctly.

Perspective Axiom # 2: Objects in the foreground must be painted larger than objects in the background in order to create distance between the two figures.

These are the main axioms used to create a sense of perspective in painting. Although the same techniques have been used in various sculpting efforts, such as Donatello’s St. George Slaying the Dragon at the base of his St. George niche statue, they are generally used in the same manner as paintings so we will just discuss the effects in this respect.

Perspective Axiom # 1 is more commonly known as the one-point perspective method. The first artist to effectively use this method was Masaccio in his The Holy Trinity. In this painting Masaccio has placed a single vanishing point from which an infinite number of lines can be traced in a grid-like pattern to understand the placement of the figures. In his discussion of this work, Janson notes "all the lines perpendicular to the picture plane converge toward a point below the foot of the cross, on the platform that supports the kneeling donors . . . if we apply [this concept] to the length of the barrel vault, we find that the vaulted area is nine feet deep" (Janson, 403). The idea of the one point perspective has been written about numerous times throughout history and has been studied and perfected as it went along. The same basic ideas still apply today however, as they did in Masaccio’s time. In a response to Alberti’s treatise On Painting, Erwin Panofsky maintains that there exists "exact geometrical perspective within which every point, regardless of whether it happens to be located in a solid or in a void, is uniquely determined by three co-ordinates perpendicular to each other and extending ad infinitum from a given ‘point of origin’" (Wohl, 87). By following the lines generated by this point, an artist can create a realistic visual depth in his/her painting.

From this we can easily deduce the respective corollary. If a viewer is not standing in the correct spot, he will not be able to view the emerging lines at the correct angle and the symmetry and order will be thrown off. In Masaccio’s painting for example, the figures are life size, so a viewer standing in the wrong place would see the figures as disproportional to their spatial surroundings. On the other hand, if placed correctly, the viewer can imagine the world of the painting stretched on ‘ad infinitum’ from that point, even merging into our own space and time.

Perspective Axiom # 2 should probably be more of a corollary to perspective axiom one, since if the lines that extend from the point of origin are followed, the pyramid effect (two lines extended down from the origin point create a triangle grid) will automatically cause objects in the background to be painted smaller than objects in the foreground. However, since the practice is common place even to those with no knowledge of the perspective system, we will leave it as an axiom.

We now move on to the second set of axioms which have to do with the uses of light.

Light Axiom # 1: For every painting there exists a light source.

Light Axiom # 2: In order to give a picture depth, there must be a shadow wherever light is blocked by a figure or object.

Corollary to Light Axiom # 2: This shadow can be created by using a darker shade of color in the section blocked from the light.

Light Axiom # 3: The object/figure of importance should be highlighted by using direct light

The first Axiom of Light is very straightforward and hard to argue with. Without a light source, the painting would be complete darkness, and without a specific or unique light source, the painting is less realistic. The importance of this axiom is how it relates to Light Axiom # 2. Depending on where the light is coming from, some aspect of the painting, or even sculpture, will be blocked from it. Here there must be a shadow if any depth or realism is expected. Leonardo Da Vinci illustrated this point well when he wrote:

The first purpose of the painter is to make a plane surface appear as a body in relief detached from the plane . . . and this investigation . . . is born of shadow and lights or, if you wish, brightness and darkness. Therefore, whoever avoids shadows avoids what is the glory of art for noble minds, but gains glory with the ignorant public (Wohl, 82).

Shadows make the subject of the painting become, as Leonardo put it, detached from the flat surface on which they are painted, increasing their chances of achieving realism.

Light Axiom # 3 has been used by numerous artists, but most notably by Tintoretto with his renowned use of chiaroscuro brushwork. In his The Last Supper, Tintoretto highlights the Christ figure by surrounding his head in a halo of light. Although in the back of the painting, and therefore smaller in actual size, Christ is still seen as the central figure because of the beams of light radiating from his body toward all areas of the room. He is the light source in this painting, or rather a reflection of the light source which can be seen coming down through the clouds from heaven. Here Tintoretto not only uses light as a technique for depth, but as a way of highlighting his subject.

The next set of axioms have to do with the physical form of the subjects. These apply not only to paintings, but also to sculpture.

Form Axiom # 1: The defining lines which separate the beginning and end of two distinct figures must be distinct. Figures may not share the same space.

Form Axiom # 2: The more detailed the human form, the more realistic.

Corollary to Form Axiom # 2: Artists must have a general knowledge of human anatomy if they wish to paint the human form.

Form Axiom # 3: All body parts must be in correct proportion to all other body parts or objects in the painting.

Form Axiom # 4: A sense of implied motion makes a more realistic image.

The first axiom again seems obvious, but especially as the art world moved toward impressionism, lines of boundary began to blur and figures began to inhabit the same space (Janson, 722). The second form axiom is one of the most interesting. The desire for realism in art gave Renaissance artists in particular the need to merge art with science. Leonardo Da Vinci dissected over 50 bodies during his artistic career and saw the human form as a mechanical instrument through which his figures could come alive (Fields, January 29, 2001). Michelangelo also took an interest in anatomy, especially the muscular structure of the body. His Christ figure in the Sistine Chapel’s Last Judgement seems to be a body builder with all the muscular shape he was given. Likewise his David is an amazing example of perfection of the human body, abdominal muscles well defined, veins of the hand perfectly sculpted, neck muscles straining with the slight turn of the head. Noting the angle of perspective (since the statue was originally created for a pilaster in the town center) Michelangelo made slight alterations in form. One example that is most recognizable is David’s extra large hands. This emphasis on detail produced the most realistic images since antiquity.

Form Axiom # 3 states the importance of proportion which is rather obvious, but a little less obvious is the fourth axiom which gives way to ideas of frozen motion. At first this concept seems to be an oxymoron, but real movement is not necessary to create the implication of movement. That is the key here. If the subject seems to be caught in the middle of an act, the observer feels as though the scene would be taking place regardless of the audience. Bernini’s David, in contrast to Michelangelo’s is in mid-battle with an invisible Goliath. Janson notes that "the space between David and his invisible opponent is charged with energy – it belongs to the statue" (Janson, 545). His body is twisted as he prepares to throw all his weight into slinging the rock. His face is laden with determination as he takes on his aggressor.

The determination in his face is an important element of the next and final axiom:

The Axiom of Emotional Content: For every work of art, even those with perfected perspective, light and form, realism is impossible to achieve without emotional content.

Emotion is the catch-all that brings the viewer into the work of art. An observer feels David’s anguish and determination to defeat his mighty opponent. The viewer feels the fear of the deceased as they face the intimidating Christ figure on their day of judgement. A spectator realizes the bravery of St. George, but also recognizes a hint of inevitable fear in the youth as he prepares to slay the dragon. In Michelangelo’s beautiful Pietá, the observer is witness to the grief of the Virgin as she holds her dead son across her lap, yet also feels an air of serenity in her downcast, mournful expression.

These are the aspects that, although subjective, create the most realistic works of art. In fact, it is the subjective quality of human emotion that grants this realism. Humans are not exact, objective beings. We all have different experiences and values that shape our reality. Although art follows a geometric-like axiomatic system in its search for realism, the final axiom implies that subjectivity is necessary to experience a more personal, realistic connection to art.

Bibliography

Ackerman, J. Distance Points: Essays in Theory and Renaissance Art and Architecture. Cambridge: MIT press. 1991.

Fields, K. University of Puget Sound professor of Art. Interview: January 29, 2001.

Janson, H. History of Art: The Western Tradition. Sixth Edition, Volume II. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc. 2001.

Wohl, H. The Aesthetics of Italian Renaissance Art: A Reconsideration of Style. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1999.